Anatomy and Physiology 2 Laboratory Manual is a guide for anatomy and physiology laboratory exercises. It includes dissection guidance with detailed images; instructions for physiology experiments including foundational content; and gross anatomy study guides for six body systems. Videos and tutorial links provide additional support. including studies in the following areas:

Endocrine
Blood
Cardiovascular
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
Fetal Pig Dissection

So named as they were initially found in the Bursa of Fabricius, B cells produce antibodies and are associated with humoral immunity (T cells are part of the cell-mediated immune response), and are an integral part of the adaptive immune system. They represent 20-30% of circulating lymphocytes.

Basophils are derived from the same stem cell line as mast cells and while they are similar to mast cells, they are not identical (they are thought by some to be immature mast cells). They are the least common of all the leukocytes, are a similar size to neutrophils and eosinophils and are characterised by the large number of basophilic staining granules in their cytoplasm. They are present in the circulation but rarely found in tissue.

Mature B cells that undergo stimulation by an antigen undergo class switching, and differentiate into either plasma or memory cells. In the paracortex region of the lymph node binding to MHC II in the presence of IL-4 produced by the CD4+ T cells (TH2 type) causes the B cells to differentiate; most will become plasma cells, however a small number will become memory cells. Follicular dendritic cells present in the germinal centers of peripheral lymphoid organs can absorb intact antigen onto their surface to present to B cells to stimulate differentiation.

Biology 2e is designed to cover the scope and sequence requirements of a typical two-semester biology course for science majors. The text provides comprehensive coverage of foundational research and core biology concepts through an evolutionary lens. Biology includes rich features that engage students in scientific inquiry, highlight careers in the biological sciences, and offer everyday applications. The book also includes various types of practice and homework questions that help students understand—and apply—key concepts. The 2nd edition has been revised to incorporate clearer, more current, and more dynamic explanations, while maintaining the same organization as the first edition. Art and illustrations have been substantially improved, and the textbook features additional assessments and related resources.

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe epithelial tissues
Discuss the different types of connective tissues in animals
Describe three types of muscle tissues
Describe nervous tissue

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

List the basic components of the blood
Compare red and white blood cells
Describe blood plasma and serum

It is important that all aspects of haemostasis can be independently evaluated. This will help to identify the phase affected and to pinpoint what the abnormality is. There are tests available to assess primary haemostasis, secondary haemostasis and fibrinolysis.

Complement is so called because it complements the function of antibody. It is a triggered enzyme cascade and there are more than 20 different proteins in the complement cascades, with most being enzymes or pro-enzymes. It can be activated by both the innate and adaptive immune systems and is one of the main innate protective mechanisms of invertebrates. Due to its destructive potential the complement system is heavily regulated but when activated it works largely by forming pore complexes as well as triggering acute inflammation and by promoting phagocytosis by macrophages and neutrophils.

Eosinophils are a similar size to neutrophils, have a bilobed nucleus and are characterised by the large eosinophilic granules present in their cytoplasm. Produced in the bone marrow they migrate into circulation briefly before moving into tissue where they survive for around six hours. The proportion of eosinophils circulating depends on the state of the animal. Normally numbers are very low but will rise considerably during a parasitic infection or allergic reaction.

Also known as red blood cells (RBCs). Erythrocytes deliver oxygen to, and remove carbon dioxide from tissues. Erythrocytes are derived from the stem cell (CFU-GEMM) and formed in a process known as erythropoiesis.

Erythrocytes contain no nucleus and are thus only produced from stem cells. During the fetal stage production is in both the liver and spleen however production is transferred to the bone marrow (red marrow) in the final stages of gestation. Initially erythropoiesis occurs in all bones, however after puberty production is limited to membranous bones (ribs, vertebrae, pelvic bones etc.) as the long bones contain adipose tissue in place of red marrow.

Transfer of passive immunity in the bovine neonate occurs solely through maternal colostrum. This is in contrast to humans where placental transfer of immunity via specific Fc receptors is the predominant mechanism. However, inadequate transfer of immunity is a relatively commonly diagnosed problem affecting young stock. This is particularly the case in modern Holstein dairy herds, where large milk yields dilute the antibody concentration in the colostrum meaning relatively more must be consumed to have the same immunity transferred. Due to the lower yields and possibly other genetic reasons, this tends to be less of a problem in suckler herds.

Haematopoiesis is also known as haemopoiesis or hemopoiesis and describes the process of blood cell formation. All blood cells are derived from the initial pluripotent stem cell (PPSC) which gives rise to colony forming units (CFUs). These CFUs further differentiate to give rise to their final stage of development where they become the various forms of blood cells or those cells which migrate from the circulation into tissues, such as mast cells and macrophages.

Heterophils are the most abundant granulocyte in most avian species and occur alongside lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils in avian blood. These cells are also found in some reptile and mammalian species.

This textbook has been created with several goals in mind: accessibility, customization, and student engagement—all while encouraging students toward high levels of academic scholarship. Students will find that this textbook offers a strong introduction to human biology in an accessible format.

Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to Human Biology and the Scientific Method
Chapter 2: Chemistry and Life
Chapter 3: Cells
Chapter 4: DNA and Gene Expression
Chapter 5: Digestive System
Chapter 6: Energy Considerations
Chapter 7: Blood
Chapter 8: Heart
Chapter 9: Blood Vessels
Chapter 10: Respiratory System
Chapter 11: Hormones
Chapter 12: Urinary System
Chapter 13: Mitosis and Meiosis
Chapter 14: Reproductive Systems
Chapter 15: Skeletal System
Chapter 16: Muscles and Movement
Chapter 17: Nervous System
Chapter 18: Special Senses
Chapter 19: Immune System

In this lab, the student will review the physiology of the organ systems by using images of models, experiments, and videos. Then the student will be asked to assess his or her knowledge, which can eventually be put to practical or experimental use. Upon successful completion of this lab supplement, students will be able to: describe techniques used to measure the function of organ systems; relate diagnostic tools, such as those used to measure ECG, EEG, and EMG activity, and those used in spirometry and urinalysis tests, to the physiological processes; relate diagnostic tests, such as the patellar and plantar reflex tests, to physiological processes; perform laboratory observations and experiments; collect, analyze, and interpret data; and form conclusions. (Biology 304 Laboratory)