Nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) are composed of numerous bundles of nerve fibers that are surrounded by connective tissue. This connective tissue also contains a specific layer that is specialised to neurons; the peri-neurium. The outer layer of this connective tissue is called the epineurium and it surrounds both the perineurium and the nerve itself. Individual neurons found within each bundle are surrounded by the endoneurium.

The peritoneum is the serous membrane that lines the abdominal cavity. It lies directly beneath the abdominal musculature (rectus abdominis and transverse abdominis). It is a type of loose connective tissue and is covered by mesothelium. Extensions of the peritoneum form the mesenteries, omenta and ligaments that support the abdominal contents. The peritoneum produces fluid to lubricate abdominal viscera. The peritoneum also enhances immune responses and walls off infection in the abdomen to prevent peritonitis.

The pharynx is part of both the respiratory and digestive system. Both systems have entrances to the pharynx but they are separated from each other by the soft palate. During exercise or during respiratory distress, the mouth can be used as an additional opening of the respiratory system and then the oropharynx also becomes an air-way.

The phospholipid bilayer is the fundamental structure which makes up the cell membrane. It is made of 2 sheets of phospholipid molecules which are said to have hydrophillic heads and hydrophobic tails. Therefore molecules on opposite sheets face back to back to protect their hydrophobic area from the surrounding intra or extracellular fluid. This creates a region inside the membrane which is hydrophobic.

Physical and physiological mechanisms underlying the transduction and analysis of acoustic signals in the auditory periphery. Topics include the acoustics, mechanics, and hydrodynamics of sound transmission; the biophysical basis for cochlear amplification; the physiology of hair-cell transduction and synaptic transmission; efferent feedback control; the analysis and coding of simple and complex sounds by the inner ear; and the physiological bases for hearing disorders. Based primarily on reading and discussions of original research literature. Topics for this course are based primarily on reading and discussions of original research literature that cover the analysis as well as the underlying physical and physiological mechanisms of acoustic signals in the auditory periphery. Topics include the acoustics, mechanics, and hydrodynamics of sound transmission; the biophysical basis for cochlear amplification; the physiology of hair-cell transduction and synaptic transmission; efferent feedback control; the analysis and coding of simple and complex sounds by the inner ear; and the physiological bases for hearing disorders.

The pituitary gland, or hypophysis is an elongated appendage of the brain lying within a bony cavity of the sphenoid bone in the base of the skull - the Sella Turcica. The hypophysis is suspended from the hypothalamus by a thin stalk. It lies between the more rostral optic chiasma, and the more caudal mammillary bodies.

Growth Hormone, also known as Somatotropin is a hormone produced by the Somatotropes of the anterior pituitary gland.

The surface of the inner wall of all of the body cavities is lined by a serous membrane which consists of a single layer of flat epithelium with a thin underlying propria (connective tissue). Within the thoracic cavity, this is known as the pleura. The visceral pleura which coats the outer surface of the lung is derived from the splanchnic mesoderm. The parietal pleura lining the thoracic cavity is derived from somatic mesoderm. The pleural cavity is a potential space between the two areas of pleural membrane, which normally are adhesed to each other.

Subject provides a comprehensive overview of human pathology with emphasis on mechanisms of disease and modern diagnostic technologies. Topics include: general mechanisms of disease (inflammation, infection, immune injury, host response to foreign materials, transplantation, genetic disorders and neoplasia); pathology of lipids, enzymes, and molecular transporters; pathology of major organ systems; and review of diagnostic tools from invasive surgical pathology to non-invasive techniques such as optical spectroscopy, functional imaging, and molecular markers of disease. The objectives of this subject are achieved by a set of integrated lectures and laboratories, as well as a student-driven term project leading to a formal presentation on a medical, socioeconomic, or technological issue in human pathology.

Pulmonary Physiology for Pre-Clinical Students is an undergraduate medical-level resource for foundational knowledge of pulmonary physiology. This text is designed for a course pre-clinical undergraduate medical curriculum and it is aligned to USMLE(r) (United States Medical Licensing Examination) content guidelines. The text is meant to provide the essential information from these content areas in a concise format that would allow learner preparation to engage in an active classroom. Clinical correlates and additional application of content is intended to be provided in the classroom experience. This resource should be assistive to the learner later in medical school and for exam preparation given the material is presented in a succinct manner, with a focus on high-yield concepts.

The rabbit is a monogastric hindgut fermenter and is a herbivore. Microbes in the hindgut produce volatile fatty acids (VFAs) which are available to the animal for energy. Microbes also produce vitamins and protein, which are available only in minimal quantities as they are produced in the hindgut (see advantages and disadvantages of hid gut fermentation). Most microbial fermentation occurs in the caecum (as opposed to the horse where most occurs in the colon). Rabbits usually eat at dusk.

The rectum lies between the terminal portion of the descending colon and anus. It is empty most of the time, except after the mass movements of the large intestine which move faeces into the rectum. This stimulates defeaction, which may happen when an animal is frightened.

A reflex arc represents a mechanism by which a physiological function is automatically managed or regulated. Reflex arcs can be found throughout the body, ranging from skeletal muscles to smooth muscle in glands. Reflex arcs are initiated via the excitation or stimulation of specific sensory cells that are directly connected to motor neurons thus enabling motor nerve impulses to be automatically passed on to that particular muscle or gland. Therefore a basic reflex arc consists of sensory cells and their associated nerve fibers, motor nerve fibres and the ultimate muscle or gland.

Reproductive hormones often have multiple roles and operate via negative feedback systems. The information below will provide the main reproductive hormones in domestic species and their functions.

Development of the reproductive system is a complex process relying on numerous systems and conditions to ensure appropriate structures are formed and the rate of development is maintained within the embryo. There are several important criteria that determine appropriate reproductive system development; genetic sex which determines the sex of the embryo, gonadal sex and phenotypic sex which both determine sexual differentiation. Genetic sex determines gonadal sex which in turn determines phenotypic sex. Sex determination relates to the genetic or environmental process which determines the sex of an individual whilst sexual differentiation represents the development of internal and external genitalia.

Reproduction is the complex set of biological processes that result in the formation of a new organism; it is crucial that we understand how these processes occur normally and have a good grasp of the role of hormones in the reproductive process. Pathology and disease are common within the reproductive system and can not only lead to a sick animal but also to a loss in production. In this section we hope to cover all the main processes in domestic animals, laying a foundation for understanding the associated pathological states.

Respiratory epithelium is a type of epithelium which lines both the upper and lower respiratory tracts. It consists of multiple layers of cylindrical epithelium, along with cilia and goblet cells.

The reticulum is the second chamber of the ruminant stomach. It has regular contractions which precede the biphasic ruminal contraction for digestion of food particles. Mechanical digestion and microbial fermentation occur to breakdown food particles for absorption. Volatile fatty acids are the major product of ruminant digestion.

The rumen is the first chamber of the ruminant stomach. It is the largest chamber and has regular contractions to move food around for digestion, eliminate gases through eructation and send food particles back to the mouth for remastication. The rumen breaks down food particles through mechanical digestion and fermentation with the help of symbiotic microbes. Volatile fatty acids are the main product of ruminant digestion.