The respiratory tract begins with the nose which includes the external nose, internal nasal cavities and paranasal sinuses. As well as being vital for transport of gases to the lower respiratory tract, the nasal cavity is also the site for one of the special senses - Olfaction.

The physiology of the nervous system can be explored at the level of a nerve cell, or 'neuron'. Communication between these cells uses electrical or chemical signals known as neurotransmitters; the cellular response generated in response to this signalling is known as an action potential.

This course is designed to provide an overview of neurobiology - the biology of our nervous system, from the spinal cord to the brain, and everything in between. After a general introduction and review of pertinent scientific concepts, the student will take a look at cellular signaling, neuron development and plasticity, and the larger systems of neurobiology, such as the sensory system, motor system, and the complex phenomena of memory and emotion. Upon successful completion of this course, the student will be able to: demonstrate an understanding of the basic biochemical concepts pertinent to cell biology; identify the basic structure of the nerve cell, the various functions of different components of the nerve cells, and different types of nerve cells; describe various different nervous systems; describe the structure and function of the nervous systems; explain how nerve cells propagate and transmit nervous impulses; describe select diseases caused by malfunctioning or nerve cell death in parts of the nervous system; explain how the nervous system responds to nerve damage or death and therapeutic measures; describe how the nervous system is formed in the embryo and identify the role of various genes and hormonal regulators in that development process; describe the structure and function of the brain and spinal cord; describe the structure and function of the somatic sensory system and the motor system. (Biology 303)

Nerves allow electrical impulses to propagate along their elongated cell extensions and facilitate the transfer of information throughout the body. Neural tissue is found within the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and the composition and constituent parts of neurones and their surrounding cells differ only slightly.

Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate signals between neurones and cells. They can be classified into two main groups; small-molecule transmitters (SMT) and neuropeptides.

Olfaction is the sense of smell, which is the ability to perceive and distinguish odours. Most mammals have a good sense of smell, but most birds generally do not. The sense of smell is well-developed in carnivores (predators) and ungulates (prey). Fish also have a fairly well-developed sense of smell. Olfactory and gustatory receptors can combine to contribute to flavour.

The oesophageal groove is present in newborn ruminants. It is a channel taking milk from the oesophagus into the abomasum, bypassing the rumen, reticulum and omasum.

The oesophagus (or gullet) is a muscular tube which transports food from the pharynx to the stomach. A bolus of food is passed down the oesophagus by peristalsis. The oesophagus is divided into cervical, thoracic and abdominal sections.

The omasum is the third chamber in the ruminant stomach. It lies within the intrathoracic part of the abdomen so cannot be palpated manually. Instead it is examined by ausculation. The omasum has biphasic contractions which squeeze fluid out of the food before allowing the ingesta to continue into the abomasum. Absorption of volatile fatty acids continues in the omasum.

Oogenesis is the process of producing the female gametes, the Ovum, from the primordial germ cells. The majority of the steps in oogenesis, up to the point of producing primary oocytes, occur pre-natally. Therefore, females are born with all of the Primary Oocytes that they will ever have as primary oocytes do not divide further.

The oral cavity is the first section of the alimentary tract that receives food. It provides the digestive functions of prehension, mastication and in salivation and also plays a role in the respiratory system through oral breathing when the nasopharynx is impaired. The oral cavity or mouth, consists of accessory structures (the salivary glands), projecting structures, (the teeth and the tongue) and the walls enclosing the oral cavity.

Osmosis is the passive movement of water across a semi permeable membrane. It occurs in the opposite direction to diffusion of ions. Water moves from a region of low solute concentration and therefore high water concentration to a region of high solute concentration and low water concentration.

The ovary is the female Gonad homologous to the male Testes. It is usually a paired organ in domestic species, but in the bird only the left Ovary is present. The structures found within the ovary are undergoing constant changes throughout the oestrus cycle from the Follicles containing Oocytes, to the formation of Corpus Haemorrhagicum, Corpus Luteum, and finally Corpus Albicans. Ovaries are ellipsoidal in shape with an irregular surface due to the projection of dominant follicles and corpora lutea. These irregularities are absent in the mare due to the cortex and medulla being reversed with ovulation only occuring from the ovulation fossa. They are greatest in Polytocious animals such as the sow due to many dominant follicles, and so corpora lutea, developing at once.

The Oviduct is the tube that links the ovary to the uterus and which the ovulated oocyte travels down to become fertilised by sperm present in the female tract. It is also refered to as the Fallopian tube, Uterine tube or Ovarian tube.

The sensing, thinking, moving body is the basis of our experience in the world; it is the very foundation on which cognitive intelligence is built. Physical Intelligence, then, is the inherent ability of the human organism to function in extraordinary accord with its physical environment. This class--a joint DAPER/ME offering for both PE and academic credit--uses the MIT gymnastics gym as a laboratory to explore Physical Intelligence as applied to ME and design. Readings, discussions and experiential learning introduce various dimensions of Physical Intelligence which students then apply to the design of innovative exercise equipment.

The Peripheral Nervous System is made up of cranial and spinal nerves. Spinal nerves are named after the vertebra immediately above it, except for cervical vertebra. There are 7 cervical vertebrae and 8 cervical spinal nerves. The peripheral nervous system can be divided into the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

The pancreas is a tubuloalveolar gland and has exocrine and endocrine tissues. The exocrine is the larger of the two parts and secretes pancreatic juice; a solution containing enzymes for carbohydrate, protein and triacylglycerol digestion. Pancreatic juice drains into the small intestine where it is functional. The endocrine part secretes hormones for the regulation of blood glucose concentration, including insulin, glucagon and somatostatin. The functional units of the endocrine part are the islets of Langerhans.

The paranasal sinuses are ventilated spaces connected to the nasal cavity. They develop as blind ending pouches between the lamina of the bones of the skull.

The parathyroid glands are multiple (generally four) small glands, approximately 1-2mm in length are located about the cranial trachea. Generally, there are two internal glands embedded within the thyroid Glands, and two external glands are outside the thyroid tissue. However, all of the parathyroid tissue may be embedded within the thyroid gland itself. In the horse, there are 'nests' of parathyroid tissue along the neck to the thoracic inlet.