The larynx is situated below where the pharynx divides into the trachea and the oesophagus. It is contained partly within the rami of the mandible and extends caudally into the neck. Vocal folds and vestibular folds are present in the larynx and due to this, it is more commonly known as the voice box.

The limbs develop from the lateral plate mesoderm. Limb development is highly conserved; in all land vertebrates there are only four limbs and they are always opposite each other with respect to the midline of the body. All vertebrate limbs have the same patterning of; stylopod - proximal part of the limb which produces the humerus or femur; zeugopod - intermediate part of the limb which produces the radius and ulna or tibia and fibula; autopod - distal part of the limb that produces the carpals and metacarpals or tarsals and metatarsals. Other animals also follow this limb pattern including the greatly modified bird's wing.

The liver (hepar) is an extremely important organ in the body of mammals and vertebrates as it provides functions essential for life. It is the largest internal organ and has numerous functions including production of bile and protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism. During foetal development, the liver has an important haemopoetic function, producing red and white blood cells from tissue between the hepatic cells and vessel walls.

The lungs are the site for gaseous exchange, and are situated within the thoracic cavity. They occupy approximately 5% of the body volume in mammals when relaxed, and their elastic nature allows them to expand and contract with the processes of inspiration and expiration.

Over 300 professionally scanned histology slides designed for use in presentations and tutorials.The library contains 91 scanned specimens / 446 slides.

All images are copyright Magscope and The University of Birmingham UK. They are released under the Creative Commons Licence CC BY-NC-ND 3.0

The mammary gland is a modified sweat gland that nourishes the young. It consists of the mamma and the teat. Undeveloped in both the male and female at birth, the female mammary gland begins to develop as a secondary sex characteristic at puberty.

The mammary gland is a modified sweat gland that nourishes the young. It consists of the mamma and the teat. Undeveloped in both the male and female at birth, the female mammary gland begins to develop as a secondary sex characteristic at puberty.

Mastication is the process whereby food is broken down by mechanical digestion in the oral cavity. The cheeks and tongue function to position food over the teeth, where grinding can occur. Mastication requires correct muscle movements and jaw articulation.

The mediastinum divides the thoracic cage into two halves. It extends from the Spine to the Sternum and contains many structures including blood vessels, nerves, oesophagus, trachea and heart.

Medical Terminology for Healthcare Professions is an Open Educational Resource (OER) that focuses on breaking down, pronouncing, and learning the meaning of medical terms within the context of anatomy and physiology. This resource is targeted for Healthcare Administration, Health Sciences, and Pre-Professional students.

Melatonin is a hormone which is an indolamine derivative of serotonin secreted from the pineal gland into the blood and CSF in response to darkness. In the presence of light it's secretion is inhibited. Melatonin also has effects on the production of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior pituitary gland. In long day breeders the increasing daylight hours cause a decrease in melatonin. In response, production of LH and FSH is uninhibited and so libido rises. In short day breeders an increase in melatonin causes a rise in production of LH and FSH and so leads to an increase in libido. The purpose of melatonin in many mammals appears to be the control of physiologic rhythms by altering the timing of circadian rhythm data relayed from the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus. Melatonin may inhibit dopamine, reduce free radical production and central nervous system excitability as well as augmenting GABA.

The central nervous system (CNS) is surrounded by several layers of tissue, with several outer layers not directly related to the CNS and three membranes that directly envelope the CNS. The outer layers are the skin and then a bone layer with associated periosteum. This layer includes the skull and the vertebrae. Below the periosteum is the Epidural Space which lies between periosteum and dura in the vertebral canal. The epidural space contains adipose tissue, loose connective tissue, veins and lymphatics. It cushions the cord as it flexes.

The midbrain or mesencephalon represents the connection between the brain stem and the higher centres of the brain and is involved in most body systems including sleep/consciousness, vision, hearing and temperature regulation.

The Biology 256 Laboratory course was designed to provide students with hands-on access to modern techniques in human physiological analyses using the course-based research pedagogical approach. In this course, students will learn how to perform literature searches; generate research questions and hypotheses; design experiments; collect, analyze, visualize and interpret data; and present scientific findings to others. The Biol 256L curriculum offers a high-impact human physiology experience that fosters the critical thinking skills required to be a successful citizen in a modern world filled with misinformation.

This courses focuses on the fundamentals of tissue and organ response to injury from a molecular and cellular perspective. There is a special emphasis on disease states that bridge infection, inflammation, immunity, and cancer. The systems approach to pathophysiology includes lectures, critical evaluation of recent scientific papers, and student projects and presentations. This term, we focus on hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), chronic-active hepatitis, and hepatitis virus infections. In addition to lectures, students work in teams to critically evaluate and present primary scientific papers.

The enlarged swelling of the gastrointestinal tract between the oesophagus and the duodenum is called the stomach. It is a simple structure in carnivores and a compound structure in ruminants. The stomach functions as a reservoir of food where digestion occurs through chemical and mechanical processes. This allows food to be broken down further and absorbed.

Motor pathways carry signals from the brain to skeletal muscle and smooth muscle such as those contained in glands. The system consists of upper and lower motor neurones. The information provided below is primarily focussed on the motor pathways that coordinate skeletal muscle movement, i.e. motor pathways related to voluntary control of skeletal muscles.

Muscle cells can come from two lineages in the somite. Limb and body muscle develop from hypaxial muscle in the lateral regions of the somite. Back muscle develops from epaxial muscle in the dorsal regions of the somite. Muscle fibres have hundreds of nuclei and function as a syncytium.

Growth and development of normal bone and joints, the process of mineralization, the biophysics of bone and response to stress and fracture, calcium and phosphate homeostasis and regulation by parathyroid hormone and vitamin D, and the pathogenesis of metabolic bone diseases and disease of connective tissue, joints, and muscles, with consideration of possible mechanisms and underlying metabolic derangements.