By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Discuss internal and external methods of fertilization
Describe the methods used by animals for development of offspring during gestation
Describe the anatomical adaptions that occurred in animals to facilitate reproduction
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Discuss how fertilization occurs
Explain how the embryo forms from the zygote
Discuss the role of cleavage and gastrulation in animal development
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to do the following:
Describe the roles of male and female reproductive hormones
Discuss the interplay of the ovarian and menstrual cycles
Describe the process of menopause
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain fetal development during the three trimesters of gestation
Describe labor and delivery
Compare the efficacy and duration of various types of contraception
Discuss causes of infertility and the therapeutic options available
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe human male and female reproductive anatomies
Discuss the human sexual response
Describe spermatogenesis and oogenesis and discuss their differences and similarities
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe the process of organogenesis
Identify the anatomical axes formed in vertebrates
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe advantages and disadvantages of asexual and sexual reproduction
Discuss asexual reproduction methods
Discuss sexual reproduction methods
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain how vacuoles, present in microorganisms, work to excrete waste
Describe the way in which flame cells and nephridia in worms perform excretory functions and maintain osmotic balance
Explain how insects use Malpighian tubules to excrete wastes and maintain osmotic balance
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain how hormonal cues help the kidneys synchronize the osmotic needs of the body
Describe how hormones like epinephrine, norepinephrine, renin-angiotensin, aldosterone, anti-diuretic hormone, and atrial natriuretic peptide help regulate waste elimination, maintain correct osmolarity, and perform other osmoregulatory functions
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Compare and contrast the way in which aquatic animals and terrestrial animals can eliminate toxic ammonia from their systems
Compare the major byproduct of ammonia metabolism in vertebrate animals to that of birds, insects, and reptiles
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Define osmosis and explain its role within molecules
Explain why osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important body functions
Describe active transport mechanisms
Explain osmolarity and the way in which it is measured
Describe osmoregulators or osmoconformers and how these tools allow animals to adapt to different environments
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain how the kidneys serve as the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems
Describe the structure of the kidneys and the functions of the parts of the kidney
Describe how the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and explain how it actively filters blood and generates urine
Detail the three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe the relationship of amplitude and frequency of a sound wave to attributes of sound
Trace the path of sound through the auditory system to the site of transduction of sound
Identify the structures of the vestibular system that respond to gravity
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe four important mechanoreceptors in human skin
Describe the topographical distribution of somatosensory receptors between glabrous and hairy skin
Explain why the perception of pain is subjective
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain in what way smell and taste stimuli differ from other sensory stimuli
Identify the five primary tastes that can be distinguished by humans
Explain in anatomical terms why a dog’s sense of smell is more acute than a human’s
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Explain how electromagnetic waves differ from sound waves
Trace the path of light through the eye to the point of the optic nerve
Explain tonic activity as it is manifested in photoreceptors in the retina
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
Describe the various types of body plans that occur in animals
Describe limits on animal size and shape
Relate bioenergetics to body size, levels of activity, and the environment
