By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Define osmosis and explain its role within molecules
Explain why osmoregulation and osmotic balance are important body functions
Describe active transport mechanisms
Explain osmolarity and the way in which it is measured
Describe osmoregulators or osmoconformers and how these tools allow animals to adapt to different environments

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Explain how the kidneys serve as the main osmoregulatory organs in mammalian systems
Describe the structure of the kidneys and the functions of the parts of the kidney
Describe how the nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and explain how it actively filters blood and generates urine
Detail the three steps in the formation of urine: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe the relationship of amplitude and frequency of a sound wave to attributes of sound
Trace the path of sound through the auditory system to the site of transduction of sound
Identify the structures of the vestibular system that respond to gravity

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Identify the general and special senses in humans
Describe three important steps in sensory perception
Explain the concept of just-noticeable difference in sensory perception

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe four important mechanoreceptors in human skin
Describe the topographical distribution of somatosensory receptors between glabrous and hairy skin
Explain why the perception of pain is subjective

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Explain in what way smell and taste stimuli differ from other sensory stimuli
Identify the five primary tastes that can be distinguished by humans
Explain in anatomical terms why a dog’s sense of smell is more acute than a human’s

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Explain how electromagnetic waves differ from sound waves
Trace the path of light through the eye to the point of the optic nerve
Explain tonic activity as it is manifested in photoreceptors in the retina

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe the various types of body plans that occur in animals
Describe limits on animal size and shape
Relate bioenergetics to body size, levels of activity, and the environment

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe epithelial tissues
Discuss the different types of connective tissues in animals
Describe three types of muscle tissues
Describe nervous tissue

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Define homeostasis
Describe the factors affecting homeostasis
Discuss positive and negative feedback mechanisms used in homeostasis
Describe thermoregulation of endothermic and ectothermic animals

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe the system of blood flow through the body
Describe how blood pressure is regulated

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

List the basic components of the blood
Compare red and white blood cells
Describe blood plasma and serum

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe the structure of the heart and explain how cardiac muscle is different from other muscles
Describe the cardiac cycle
Explain the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries, and how blood flows through the body

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe an open and closed circulatory system
Describe interstitial fluid and hemolymph
Compare and contrast the organization and evolution of the vertebrate circulatory system

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Describe the role of different glands in the endocrine system
Explain how the different glands work together to maintain homeostasis

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

Explain how hormones work
Discuss the role of different types of hormone receptors